Glossary of automotive 2

OCTANE RATING: A number indicating the quality of gasoline based on its ability to resist knock. The higher the number, the better the quality. Higher compression engines require higher octane gas.OEM: Original Equipment Manufactured. OEM equipment is that furnished standard by the manufacturer.
OFFSET: The distance between the vertical center of the wheel and the mounting surface at the lugs. Offset is positive if the center is outside the lug circle; negative offset puts the center line inside the lug circle.
OHM: The unit used to measure the resistance of conductor-to-electrical flow. One ohm is the amount of resistance that limits current flow to one ampere in a circuit with one volt of pressure.
OHMMETER: An instrument used for measuring the resistance, in ohms, in an electrical circuit.

Figure 21 Checking resistance using an ohmmeter

OSCILLOSCOPE: A piece of test equipment that shows electric impulses as a pattern on a screen. Engine performance can be analyzed by interpreting these patterns.
O2 SENSOR: See oxygen sensor.
OUTPUT SHAFT: The shaft which transmits torque from a device, such as a transmission.
OVERDRIVE: (1.) A device attached to or incorporated in a transmission that allows the engine to turn less than one full revolution for every complete revolution of the wheels. The net effect is to reduce engine rpm, thereby using less fuel. A typical overdrive gear ratio would be .87:1, instead of the normal 1:1 in high gear. (2.) A gear assembly which produces more shaft revolutions than that transmitted to it.
OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT (OHC): An engine configuration in which the camshaft is mounted on top of the cylinder head and operates the valve either directly or by means of rocker arms.
OVERHEAD VALVE (OHV): An engine configuration in which all of the valves are located in the cylinder head and the camshaft is located in the cylinder block. The camshaft operates the valves via lifters and pushrods.
OVERSTEER: The tendency of some cars, when steering into a turn, to over-respond or steer more than required, which could result in excessive slip of the rear wheels. Opposite of understeer.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN: See nitrogen oxide (NOx).
OXYGEN SENSOR: Used with a feedback system to sense the presence of oxygen in the exhaust gas and signal the computer which can use the voltage signal to determine engine operating efficiency and adjust the air/fuel ratio.
PARK NEUTRAL SAFETY SWITCH: On vehicles with automatic transmissions, a neutral safety switch (often referred to by various names by the different manufacturers, such as: transmission range sensor, neutral safety switch, park/neutral switch, etc.) on the side of the transmission is wired to the relay or solenoid. Its function is to prevent activation of the starter (by creating an open circuit) when the transmission is in any gear other than P (park) or N (neutral). The vehicle can only be started in P or N. Most manual transmission vehicles have a clutch switch to prevent starting the vehicle unless the clutch is depressed.
PARTS WASHER: A basin or tub, usually with a built-in pump mechanism and hose used for circulating chemical solvent for the purpose of cleaning greasy, oily and dirty components.
PART-TIME FOUR-WHEEL DRIVE: A system that is normally in the two-wheel drive mode and only runs in four-wheel drive when the system is manually engaged because more traction is desired. Two or four-wheel drive is normally selected by a lever to engage the front axle, but if locking hubs are used, these must also be manually engaged in the Lock position. Otherwise, the front axle will not drive the front wheels.
PASSIVE RESTRAINT: Safety systems such as air bags or automatic seat belts which operate with no action required on the part of the driver or passenger. Mandated by Federal regulations on all cars sold in the U.S. after 1990.
PAYLOAD: The weight the car is capable of carrying in addition to its own weight. Payload includes weight of the driver, passengers and cargo, but not coolant, fuel, lubricant, spare tire, etc.
PCM: Powertrain control module. See Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
PCV VALVE: A valve usually located in the rocker cover that vents crankcase vapors back into the engine to be reburned.
PERCOLATION: A condition in which the fuel actually "boils" due to excessive heat. Percolation prevents proper atomization of the fuel causing rough running.
PICK-UP COIL: The coil in which voltage is induced in an electronic ignition.
PING: A metallic rattling sound produced by the engine during acceleration. It is usually due to incorrect ignition timing or a poor grade of gasoline.
PINION: The smaller of two gears. The rear axle pinion drives the ring gear which transmits motion to the axle shafts.
PISTON RING: An open-ended ring which fits into a groove on the outer diameter of the piston. Its chief function is to form a seal between the piston and cylinder wall. Most automotive pistons have three rings: two for compression sealing; one for oil sealing.
PITMAN ARM: A lever which transmits steering force from the steering gear to the steering linkage.

Figure 22 Steering linkage

PLY RATING: A rating given a tire which indicates strength (but not necessarily actual plies). A two-ply/four-ply rating has only two plies, but the strength of a four-ply tire.
POLARITY: Indication (positive or negative) of the two poles of a battery.
POWER-TO-WEIGHT RATIO: Ratio of horsepower to weight of car.
POWERTRAIN: See Drivetrain.
Ppm: Parts per million; unit used to measure exhaust emissions.
PREIGNITION: Early ignition of fuel in the cylinder, sometimes due to glowing carbon deposits in the combustion chamber. Preignition can be damaging since combustion takes place prematurely.
PRELOAD: A predetermined load placed on a bearing during assembly or by adjustment.
PRESS FIT: The mating of two parts under pressure, due to the inner diameter of one being smaller than the outer diameter of the other, or vice versa; an interference fit.
PRESSURE PLATE: A spring-loaded plate (part of the clutch) that transmits power to the driven (friction) plate when the clutch is engaged.
PRIMARY CIRCUIT: The low voltage side of the ignition system which consists of the ignition switch, ballast resistor or resistance wire, bypass, coil, electronic control unit and pick-up coil as well as the connecting wires and harnesses.
PROFESSIONAL TECHNICIAN: A repair technician that has been properly trained in a vehicle’s systems. Usually affiliated with ASE or other certification system. This technician will also have the proper tools to diagnose and repair your vehicle.
PROFILE: Term used for tire measurement (tire series), which is the ratio of tire height to tread width.
Psi: Pounds per square inch; a measurement of pressure.
PUSHROD: A steel rod between the hydraulic valve lifter and the valve rocker arm in overhead valve (OHV) engines.
QUARTER PANEL: General term used to refer to a rear fender. Quarter panel is the area from the rear door opening to the tail light area and from rear wheelwell to the base of the trunk and roof-line.
RACE: The surface on the inner or outer ring of a bearing on which the balls, needles or rollers move.
RACK AND PINION: A type of automotive steering system using a pinion gear attached to the end of the steering shaft. The pinion meshes with a long rack attached to the steering linkage.

Figure 23 Rack and pinion steering

RADIAL TIRE: Tire design which uses body cords running at right angles to the center line of the tire. Two or more belts are used to give tread strength. Radials can be identified by their characteristic sidewall bulge.
RADIATOR: Part of the cooling system for a water-cooled engine, mounted in the front of the car and connected to the engine with rubber hoses. Through the radiator, excess combustion heat is dissipated into the atmosphere through forced convection using a water and glycol based mixture that circulates through, and cools, the engine.
REAR MAIN OIL SEAL: A synthetic or rope-type seal that prevents oil from leaking out of the engine past the rear main crankshaft bearing.
RECALL: When a manufacturer recalls vehicles it has manufactured back to the dealership for specific repairs related to unplanned mechanical problems and/or safety issues. Recalls are usually voluntary and are made in conjunction with regulatory control of the National Highway Traffic Safety Agency (NHTSA). They can originate with the manufacturer or with the NHTSA. Repairs performed under a recall are usually free to the consumer.
RECIRCULATING BALL: Type of steering system in which recirculating steel balls occupy the area between the nut and worm wheel, causing a reduction in friction.
RECTIFIER: A device (used primarily in alternators) that permits electrical current to flow in one direction only.
REFRIGERANT 12 (R-12) or 134 (R-134): The generic name of the refrigerant used in automotive air conditioning systems.
REGULATOR: A device which maintains the amperage and/or voltage levels of a circuit at predetermined values.
RELAY: A switch which automatically opens and/or closes a circuit.
RELUCTOR: A wheel that rotates inside the distributor and triggers the release of voltage in an electronic ignition.
RESIN: A liquid plastic used in body work.
RESISTANCE: The opposition to the flow of current through a circuit or electrical device, and is measured in ohms. Resistance is equal to the voltage divided by the amperage.
RESISTOR SPARK PLUG: A spark plug using a resistor to shorten the spark duration. This suppresses radio interference and lengthens plug life.
RESISTOR: A device, usually made of wire, which offers a preset amount of resistance in an electrical circuit.
RETARD: Setting the ignition timing so that spark occurs later (fewer degrees before TDC).
RING GEAR: The name given to a ring-shaped gear attached to a differential case, or affixed to a flywheel or as part of a planetary gear set.
ROCKER ARM: A lever which rotates around a shaft pushing down (opening) the valve with an end when the other end is pushed up by the pushrod. Spring pressure will later close the valve.

Figure 24 Typical rocker arm and shaft assembly

ROCKER PANEL: The body panel below the doors between the wheel openings.
ROLLER BEARING: A bearing made up of hardened inner and outer races between which hardened steel rollers move.
ROTOR: (1.) The disc-shaped part of a disc brake assembly, upon which the brake pads bear; also called brake disc. (2.) The device mounted atop the distributor shaft, which passes current to the distributor cap tower contacts.

Figure 25 Rotor mounted on top of distributor shaft

ROTARY ENGINE: See Wankel engine.
RPM: Revolutions per minute (usually indicates engine speed).
RUN-ON: Condition when the engine continues to run, even when the key is turned off. See dieseling.
SEALED BEAM: An automotive headlight. The lens, reflector and filament form a single unit.
SEATBELT INTERLOCK: A system whereby the car cannot be started unless the seatbelt is buckled.
SECONDARY CIRCUIT: The high voltage side of the ignition system, usually above 20,000 volts. The secondary includes the ignition coil, coil wire, distributor cap and rotor, spark plug wires and spark plugs.
SEMI-FLOATING AXLE: In this design, a wheel is attached to the axle shaft, which takes both drive and cornering loads. Almost all solid axle passenger cars and light trucks use this design.
SENDING UNIT: A mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or electromagnetic device which transmits information to a gauge.
SENSOR: Any device designed to measure engine operating conditions or ambient pressures and temperatures. Usually electronic in nature and designed to send a voltage signal to an on-board computer, some sensors may operate as a simple on/off switch or they may provide a variable voltage signal (like a potentiometer) as conditions or measured parameters change.
SERPENTINE BELT: An accessory drive belt, with small multiple v-ribs, routed around most or all of the engine-powered accessories such as the alternator and power steering pump. Usually both the front and the back side of the belt come into contact with various pulleys.
SHEATH: The outer casing for clutch or brake cables.
SHIM: Spacers of precise, predetermined thickness used between parts to establish a proper working relationship.
SHIMMY: Vibration (sometimes violent) in the front end caused by misaligned front end, out of balance tires or worn suspension components.
SHORT CIRCUIT: An electrical malfunction where current takes the path of least resistance to ground (usually through damaged insulation). Current flow is excessive from low resistance resulting in a blown fuse.
SINGLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT: See overhead camshaft.
SKIDPLATE: A metal plate attached to the underside of the body to protect the fuel tank, transfer case or other vulnerable parts from damage.
SLAVE CYLINDER: In automotive use, a device in the hydraulic clutch system which is activated by hydraulic force, disengaging the clutch.
SLUDGE: Thick, black deposits in engine formed from dirt, oil, water, etc. It is usually formed in engines when oil changes are neglected.
SNAP RING: A circular retaining clip used inside or outside a shaft or part to secure a shaft, such as a floating wrist pin.
SOHC: Single overhead camshaft.
SOLENOID: An electrically operated, magnetic switching device.
SPARK PLUG: A device screwed into the combustion chamber of a spark ignition engine. The basic construction is a conductive core inside of a ceramic insulator, mounted in an outer conductive base. An electrical charge from the spark plug wire travels along the conductive core and jumps a preset air gap to a grounding point or points at the end of the conductive base. The resultant spark ignites the fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (BATTERY): The relative weight of liquid (battery electrolyte) as compared to the weight of an equal volume of water.
SPLINES: Ridges machined or cast onto the outer diameter of a shaft or inner diameter of a bore to enable parts to mate without rotation.
SPONGY PEDAL: A soft or spongy feeling when the brake pedal is depressed. It is usually due to air in the brake lines.
SPRUNG WEIGHT: The weight of a car supported by the springs.
SRS: Supplemental restraint system
STABILIZER (SWAY) BAR: A bar linking both sides of the suspension. It resists sway on turns by taking some of the added load from one wheel and putting it on the other.
STARTER: A high-torque electric motor used for the purpose of starting the engine, typically through a high ratio geared drive connected to the flywheel ring gear.

Figure 26 Starter motor assembly location

STEERING GEOMETRY: Combination of various angles of suspension components (caster, camber, toe-in); roughly equivalent to front end alignment.
STRAIGHT WEIGHT: Term designating motor oil as suitable for use within a narrow range of temperatures. Outside the narrow temperature range, its flow characteristics will not adequately lubricate.
STROKE: The distance the piston travels from bottom dead center to top dead center.
SUPERCHARGER: An air pump driven mechanically by the engine through belts, chains, shafts or gears from the crankshaft. Two general types of supercharger are the positive displacement and centrifugal types, which pump air in direct relationship to the speed of the engine.
SUPPLEMENTAL RESTRAINT SYSTEM: See air bag.
SYNCHROMESH: A manual transmission that is equipped with devices (synchronizers) that match the gear speeds so that the transmission can be downshifted without clashing gears.
SYNTHETIC OIL: Non-petroleum based oil.
TAMPERING: Used in conjunction with a vehicles emission control system. Tampering is used to describe any alterations to the original design of the vehicles emission control system.
TAMPERING INSPECTION: An inspection done by State or Local authorities to determine if a vehicle's emission control system has been tampered with.
TACHOMETER: A device used to measure the rotary speed of an engine, shaft, gear, etc., usually in rotations per minute.
TDC: Top dead center. The exact top of the piston's stroke.
THERMOSTAT: A valve, located in the cooling system of an engine, which is closed when cold and opens gradually in response to engine heating, controlling the temperature of the coolant and rate of coolant flow.
THROW-OUT BEARING: As the clutch pedal is depressed, the throwout bearing moves against the spring fingers of the pressure plate, forcing the pressure plate to disengage from the driven disc.
TIE ROD: A rod connecting the steering arms. Tie rods have threaded ends that are used to adjust toe-in.
TIMING BELT: A square-toothed, reinforced rubber belt that is driven by the crankshaft and operates the camshaft.
TIMING CHAIN: A roller chain that is driven by the crankshaft and operates the camshaft.
TIRE ROTATION: Moving the tires from one position to another to make the tires wear evenly.
TOE-IN (OUT): A term comparing the extreme front and rear of the front tires. Closer together at the front is toe-in; farther apart at the front is toe-out.

Figure 27 Wheel toe-in (top view)

TOP DEAD CENTER (TDC): The point at which the piston reaches the top of its travel on the compression stroke.
TORQUE: Measurement of turning or twisting force, expressed as foot-pounds or inch-pounds.
TORQUE CONVERTER: A turbine used to transmit power from a driving member to a driven member via hydraulic action, providing changes in drive ratio and torque. In automotive use, it links the driveplate at the rear of the engine to the automatic transmission.
TORSION BAR SUSPENSION: Long rods of spring steel which take the place of springs. One end of the bar is anchored and the other arm (attached to the suspension) is free to twist. The bars' resistance to twisting causes springing action.

Figure 28 Torsion bar front suspension

TRACK: Distance between the centers of the tires where they contact the ground.
TRACTION CONTROL: A control system that prevents the spinning of a car's drive wheels when excess power is applied.
TRANSAXLE: A single housing containing the transmission and differential. Transaxles are usually found on front engine/front wheel drive or rear engine/rear wheel drive cars.
TRANSDUCER: A device used to change a force into an electrical signal.
TRANSFER CASE: A gearbox driven from the transmission that delivers power to both front and rear driveshafts in a four-wheel drive system. Transfer cases usually have a high and low range set of gears, used depending on how much pulling power is needed.
TRANSISTOR: A semi-conductor component which can be actuated by a small voltage to perform an electrical switching function.
TREAD WEAR INDICATOR: Bars molded into the tire at right angles to the tread that appear as horizontal bars when 1/16th in. of tread remains.

Figure 29 Location of tire tread wear indicators

TREAD WEAR PATTERN: The pattern of wear on tires which can be "read" to diagnose problems in the front suspension.
TSB: Acronym for Technical Service Bulletin. This bulletin is produced by the vehicle manufacturer and alerts automotive technicians about specific service problem areas, repair procedures, and new service techniques for a vehicle.
TUNE-UP: A regular maintenance function, usually associated with the replacement and adjustment of parts and components in the electrical and fuel systems of a car for the purpose of attaining optimum performance.
TURBOCHARGER: An exhaust driven pump which compresses intake air and forces it into the combustion chambers at higher than atmospheric pressures. The increased air pressure allows more fuel to be burned and results in increased horsepower being produced.

Figure 30 The turbocharged engine principle uses exhaust gas to spin the turbocharger, increasing maximum engine power output

TURN OVER: Synonymous with "cranks over", the action of the engine internal components rotating during the starting cycle. This is what happens when you turn the key before the engine starts.
U-JOINT (UNIVERSAL JOINT): A flexible coupling in the drive train that allows the driveshafts or axle shafts to operate at different angles and still transmit rotary power.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT: A light used in conjunction with a fluorescent dye to detect leaks in the engine, transmission or cooling system.
UNDER LOAD: Used to describe the condition of a vehicle when climbing a steep incline or hill. When the vehicle is placed under a higher than normal amount of load when carrying excessive cargo.
UNDERSTEER: The tendency of a car to continue straight ahead while negotiating a turn.
UNIT BODY: Design in which the car body acts as the frame.
UNLEADED FUEL: Fuel which contains no lead (a common gasoline additive). The presence of lead in fuel will destroy the functioning elements of a catalytic converter, making it useless.
UNSPRUNG WEIGHT: The weight of car components not supported by the springs (wheels, tires, brakes, rear axle, control arms, etc.).
VACUUM ADVANCE: A device which advances the ignition timing in response to increased engine vacuum.
VACUUM MODULATOR: A device used to control the transmission shift points based on the amount of load placed on the engine.
VACUUM GAUGE: An instrument used to measure the presence of vacuum in a chamber.
VALVE: A device which control the pressure, direction of flow or rate of flow of a liquid or gas.
VALVE CLEARANCE: The measured gap between the end of the valve stem and the rocker arm, cam lobe or follower that activates the valve.
VALVE GUIDES: The guide through which the stem of the valve passes. The guide is designed to keep the valve in proper alignment.
VALVE LASH (CLEARANCE): The operating clearance in the valve train.
VALVE STEM SEALS: Synthetic rubber seals that are used to control the oil that lubricates the valve stems in the valve guides. Worn valve stem seals can cause blue smoke from the exhaust when first starting the engine.
VALVE TRAIN: The system that operates intake and exhaust valves, consisting of camshaft, valves and springs, lifters, pushrods and rocker arms.
VAPOR LOCK: Boiling of the fuel in the fuel lines due to excess heat. This will interfere with the flow of fuel in the lines and can completely stop the flow. Vapor lock normally only occurs in hot weather.
VARNISH: Term applied to the residue formed when gasoline gets old and stale.
VCM: See Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
VISCOSITY: The ability of a fluid to flow. The lower the viscosity rating, the easier the fluid will flow. 10 weight motor oil will flow much easier than 40 weight motor oil.
VOLT: Unit used to measure the force or pressure of electricity. It is defined as the pressure needed to move one amp through a resistance of one ohm.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR: A device that controls the current output of the alternator or generator.
VOLTMETER: An instrument used for measuring electrical force in units called volts. Voltmeters are always connected parallel with the circuit being tested.
WANKEL ENGINE: An engine which uses no pistons. In place of pistons, triangular-shaped rotors revolve in specially shaped housings.
WATER PUMP: A belt driven component of the cooling system that mounts on the engine, circulating the coolant under pressure.
WEAR INDICATORS: A metal tab mounted on disc brake pads that touch the brake rotor when the brake linings need replacement.

Figure 31 Water pump mounting onto front of the engine block

WHEEL ALIGNMENT: Inclusive term to describe the front end geometry (caster, camber, toe-in/out).
WHEEL CYLINDER: Found in the automotive drum brake assembly, it is a device, actuated by hydraulic pressure, which, through internal pistons, pushes the brake shoes outward against the drums.

Figure 32 Drum brake components

WHEEL WEIGHT: Small weights attached to the wheel to balance the wheel and tire assembly. Out-of-balance tires quickly wear out and also give erratic handling when installed on the front.
WHEELBASE: Distance between the center of front wheels and the center of rear wheels.

Glossary of automotive 1

EAD CENTER: The extreme top or bottom of the piston stroke.
DETERGENT: An additive in engine oil to improve its operating characteristics.
DETONATION: An unwanted explosion of the air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber caused by excess heat and compression, advanced timing, or an overly lean mixture. Also referred to as "ping".
DEXRON: A brand of automatic transmission fluid.
DIAPHRAGM: A thin flexible wall separating two cavities, such as in a vacuum advance unit.
DIESELING: The engine continues to run after the car is shut off; caused by fuel continuing to be burned in the combustion chamber.
DIFFERENTIAL: A geared assembly which allows the transmission of motion between drive axles, giving one axle the ability to rotate faster than the other, as in cornering.

Figure 12 Differential action during cornering

DIGITAL VOLT OHMMETER: An electronic diagnostic tool used to measure voltage, ohms and amps as well as several other functions, with the readings displayed on a digital screen in tenths, hundredths and thousandths.
DIODE: An electrical device that will allow current to flow in one direction only.
DIRECT CURRENT (DC): Electrical current that flows in one direction only.
DISC BRAKE: A hydraulic braking assembly consisting of a brake disc, or rotor, mounted on an axleshaft, and a caliper assembly containing usually two brake pads which are activated by hydraulic pressure. The pads are forced against the sides of the disc, creating friction which slows the car.
DISPLACEMENT: The total volume of air that is displaced by all pistons as the engine turns through one complete revolution.
DISTRIBUTOR: A mechanically driven device on an engine which is responsible for electrically firing the spark plug at a pre-determined point of the piston stroke.

Figure 13 Typical distributor assembly

DOHC: Double overhead camshaft.
DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT: The engine utilizes two camshafts mounted in one cylinder head. One camshaft operates the exhaust valves, while the other operates the intake valves.
DOWEL PIN: A pin, inserted in mating holes in two different parts, allowing those parts to maintain a fixed relationship.
DRIVE CYCLE TEST: A function of the vehicle on board computer that includes the testing of the monitored systems that requires a start up -- from a cold engine to a warm engine -- and the vehicle being driven.
DRIVE TRAIN: The components that transmit the flow of power from the engine to the wheels. The components include the clutch, transmission, driveshafts (or axle shafts in front wheel drive), U-joints and differential.
DRUM BRAKE: A braking system which consists of two brake shoes and one or two wheel cylinders, mounted on a fixed backing plate, and a brake drum, mounted on an axle, which revolves around the assembly.
DRY CHARGED BATTERY: Battery to which electrolyte is added when the battery is placed in service.
DVOM: Digital volt ohmmeter

Figure 14 Performing a resistance check using a DVOM

DWELL: The rate, measured in degrees of shaft rotation, at which an electrical circuit cycles on and off.
DYNAMOMETER: Various devices used in testing a motor or engine for such characteristics as efficiency and torque, especially an instrument that measures current or the power of a motor by calculating the force between a fixed coil and a moving coil.
EBCM: See Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
ECM: See Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM: The computer control system that regulates fuel delivery, ignition timing, engine idle speed and on some vehicles the transmission shift points.
ECU: Electronic control unit.
ELECTRODE: Conductor (positive or negative) of electric current.
ELECTROLYTE: A solution of water and sulfuric acid used to activate the battery. Electrolyte is extremely corrosive.
ELECTRONIC ACTUATION SYSTEM: The electronic controls for an anti-lock braking system or electronic suspension system. This unit contains the control computer for the individual system.
ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT: A digital computer that controls engine (and sometimes transmission, brake or other car system) functions based on data received from various sensors. Examples used by some manufacturers include Electronic Brake Control Module (EBCM), Engine Control Module (ECM), Powertrain Control Module (PCM) or Vehicle Control Module (VCM).
ELECTRONIC IGNITION: A system in which the timing and firing of the spark plugs is controlled by an electronic control unit, usually called a module. These systems have no points or condenser.
ENAMEL: Type of paint that dries to a smooth, glossy finish.
END-PLAY: The measured amount of axial movement in a shaft.
ENGINE: The primary motor or power apparatus of a car, which converts liquid or gas fuel into mechanical energy.
ENGINE BLOCK: The basic engine casting containing the cylinders, the crankshaft main bearings, as well as machined surfaces for the mounting of other components such as the cylinder head, oil pan, transmission, etc..
EP LUBRICANT: EP (extreme pressure) lubricants are specially formulated for use with gears involving heavy loads (transmissions, differentials, etc.).
ETHYL: A substance added to gasoline to improve its resistance to knock, by slowing down the rate of combustion.
ETHYLENE GLYCOL: The base substance of antifreeze.
EXHAUST MANIFOLD: A set of cast passages or pipes which conduct exhaust gases from the engine.

Figure 15 Typical exhaust manifold

FAST IDLE: The speed of the engine when the choke is on. Fast idle speeds engine warm-up.
FEDERAL ENGINE: An engine certified by the EPA for use in any of the 49 states (except California).
FEELER GAUGE: A blade, usually metal, of precisely predetermined thickness, used to measure the clearance between two parts.
FILAMENT: The part of a bulb that glows; the filament creates high resistance to current flow and actually glows from the resulting heat.
FINAL DRIVE: See axle ratio.
FIRING ORDER: The order in which combustion occurs in the cylinders of an engine. Also the order in which spark is distributed to the plugs by the distributor.
FLAME FRONT: The term used to describe certain aspects of the fuel combustion in the cylinders. The flame front should move in a controlled pattern across the cylinder, rather than simply combusting immediately.
FLAT ENGINE: Engine design in which the pistons are horizontally opposed. Porsche, Subaru and some old VWs are common examples of flat engines.
FLAT RATE: A dealership term referring to the standard fee charged by a technician for a particular repair or diagnostic service versus the actual labor time.
FLAT SPOT: A point during acceleration when the engine seems to lose power for an instant.
FLOODING: The presence of too much fuel in the intake manifold and combustion chamber which prevents the air/fuel mixture from firing, thereby causing a no-start situation.
FLYWHEEL: A heavy disc of metal attached to the rear of the crankshaft. It smoothes the firing impulses of the engine and keeps the crankshaft turning during periods when no firing takes place. The starter also engages the flywheel to start the engine.

Figure 16 The flywheel is mounted to the rear of the crankshaft

FOOT POUND (ft. lbs. or sometimes ft. lb.): The amount of energy or work needed to raise an item weighing one pound a distance of one foot.
FREEPLAY: The amount of travel in a clutch pedal or brake pedal before movement of the clutch or brakes take place. This adjustment is critical to the proper operation of the clutch or brakes.
FREEZE PLUG: A plug in the engine block which will be pushed out if the coolant freezes. Sometimes called expansion plugs, they protect the block from cracking should the coolant freeze.
FRONT END ALIGNMENT: A service to set caster, camber and toe-in to the correct specifications. This will ensure that the car steers and handles properly and that the tires wear properly.
FRONTAL AREA: The total surface area of the front of a car that is exposed to air flow.
FUEL FILTER: A component of the fuel system containing a porous paper element used to prevent any impurities from entering the engine through the fuel system. It usually takes the form of a canister-like housing, mounted in-line with the fuel hose, located anywhere on a car between the fuel tank and engine.

Figure 17 The fuel filter is mounted in-line with the fuel hose

FUEL INJECTION: A system replacing the carburetor that sprays fuel into the cylinder through nozzles. The amount of fuel can be more precisely controlled with fuel injection.
FULL FLOATING AXLE: An axle in which the axle housing extends through the wheel giving bearing support on the outside of the housing. The front axle of a four-wheel drive car is usually a full floating axle, as are the rear axles of many larger (3/4 ton and over) pick-ups and vans.
FULL-TIME FOUR-WHEEL DRIVE: A four-wheel drive system that continuously delivers power to all four wheels. A differential between the front and rear driveshafts permits variations in axle speeds to control gear wind-up without damage.
FUSE: A protective device in a circuit which prevents circuit overload by breaking the circuit when a specific amperage is present. The device is constructed around a strip or wire of a lower amperage rating than the circuit it is designed to protect. When an amperage higher than that stamped on the fuse is present in the circuit, the strip or wire melts, opening the circuit.
FUSIBLE LINK: A piece of wire in a wiring harness that performs the same service as a fuse. If overloaded, the fusible link will melt and interrupt the circuit.
FWD: Front wheel drive.
GAS ANALYZER: A tool used to test the exhaust emissions of a vehicle. Gases tested include CO (carbon monoxide), CO₂ (carbon dioxide), HC (hydrocarbons), O₂ (oxygen) and sometimes NO_x (oxides of nitrogen).
GAWR: Gross axle weight rating. The total maximum weight an axle is designed to carry.
GCW: Gross combined weight. The total combined weight of a tow car and trailer.
GEAR RATIO: A ratio expressing the number of turns a smaller gear will make to turn a larger gear through one revolution. The ratio is found by dividing the number of teeth on the smaller gear into the number of teeth on the larger gear.
GEARBOX: Transmission
GEL COAT: A thin coat of plastic resin covering fiberglass body panels.
GENERATOR: A device which produces direct current (DC) necessary to charge the battery.
GVWR: Gross vehicle weight rating. The total maximum weight a car is designed to carry including the weight of the car, passengers, equipment, gas, oil, etc.
HALOGEN: A special type of lamp known for its quality of brilliant white light. Originally used for fog lights and driving lights.
HEADER TANK: An expansion tank for the radiator coolant. It can be located remotely or built into the radiator.
HEAT RANGE: A term used to describe the ability of a spark plug to carry away heat. Plugs with longer nosed insulators take longer to carry heat off effectively.
HEAT RISER: A flapper in the exhaust manifold that is closed when the engine is cold, causing hot exhaust gases to heat the intake manifold providing better cold engine operation. A thermostatic spring opens the flapper when the engine warms up.
HEATER CONTROL VALVE: The device that controls the flow of hot engine coolant through the heater core.
HEMI: A name given an engine using hemispherical combustion chambers.
HORSEPOWER: A measurement of the amount of work; one horsepower is the amount of work necessary to lift 33,000 lbs. one foot in one minute. Brake horsepower (bhp) is the horsepower delivered by an engine on a dynamometer. Net horsepower is the power remaining (measured at the flywheel of the engine) that can be used to turn the wheels after power is consumed through friction and running the engine accessories (water pump, alternator, air pump, fan etc.)
HUB: The center part of a wheel or gear.
HYDROCARBON (HC): Any chemical compound made up of hydrogen and carbon. A major pollutant formed by the engine as a by-product of combustion.
HYDROMETER: An instrument used to measure the specific gravity of a solution.
HYDROPLANING: A phenomenon of driving when water builds up under the tire tread, causing it to lose contact with the road. Slowing down will usually restore normal tire contact with the road.
HVAC: Heating, ventilation and air conditioning system.
IDLE MIXTURE: The mixture of air and fuel (usually about 14:1) being fed to the cylinders. The idle mixture screw(s) are sometimes adjusted as part of a tune-up.
IDLER ARM: Component of the steering linkage which is a geometric duplicate of the steering gear arm. It supports the right side of the center steering link.
INCH POUND (inch lbs. or sometimes in. lb. or in. lbs.): One twelfth of a foot pound.
INDUCTION: A means of transferring electrical energy in the form of a magnetic field. Principle used in the ignition coil to increase voltage.
INJECTOR: A device which receives metered fuel under relatively low pressure and is activated to inject the fuel into the engine under relatively high pressure at a predetermined time.
INPUT SHAFT: The shaft to which torque is applied, usually carrying the driving gear or gears.
INTAKE MANIFOLD: A casting of passages or pipes used to conduct air or a fuel/air mixture to the cylinders.

Figure 18 Typical intake manifold for a 4-cylinder engine

JOURNAL: The bearing surface within which a shaft operates.
JUMPER CABLES: Two heavy duty wires with large alligator clips used to provide power from a charged battery to a discharged battery mounted in a car.
JUMPSTART: Utilizing the sufficiently charged battery of one car to start the engine of another car with a discharged battery by the use of jumper cables.
KEY: A small block usually fitted in a notch between a shaft and a hub to prevent slippage of the two parts.
KNOCK: Noise which results from the spontaneous ignition of a portion of the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder caused by overly advanced ignition timing or use of incorrectly low octane fuel for that engine.
KNOCK SENSOR: An input device that responds to spark knock, caused by overly advanced ignition timing.
LABOR TIME: A specific amount of time required to perform a certain repair or diagnostic service as defined by a car or after-market manufacturer .
LACQUER: A quick-drying automotive paint.
LIMITED SLIP: A type of differential which transfers driving force to the wheel with the best traction.
LITHIUM-BASE GREASE: Chassis and wheel bearing grease using lithium as a base. Not compatible with sodium-base grease.
LOAD RANGE: Indicates the number of plies at which a tire is rated. Load range B equals four-ply rating; C equals six-ply rating; and, D equals an eight-ply rating.
LOCKING HUBS: Accessories used on part-time four-wheel drive systems that allow the front wheels to be disengaged from the drive train when four-wheel drive is not being used. When four-wheel drive is desired, the hubs are engaged, locking the wheels to the drive train.
LOCK RING: See Circlip or Snapring
MANIFOLD: A casting of passages or set of pipes which connect the cylinders to an inlet or outlet source.
MANIFOLD VACUUM: Low pressure in an engine intake manifold formed just below the throttle plates. Manifold vacuum is highest at idle and drops under acceleration.
MASTER CYLINDER: The primary fluid pressurizing device in a hydraulic system. In automotive use, it is found in brake and hydraulic clutch systems and is pedal activated, either directly or, in a power brake system, through the power booster.

Figure 19 Master cylinder

McPHERSON STRUT: A suspension component combining a shock absorber and spring in one unit.

Figure 20 McPherson struts combine shocks and springs in one assembly

MISFIRE: Condition occurring when the fuel mixture in a cylinder fails to ignite, causing the engine to run roughly.
MODULE: Electronic control unit, amplifier or igniter of solid state or integrated design which controls the current flow in the ignition primary circuit based on input from the pick-up coil. When the module opens the primary circuit, high secondary voltage is induced in the coil.
MULTI-WEIGHT: Type of oil that provides adequate lubrication at both high and low temperatures
NEEDLE BEARING: A bearing which consists of a number (usually a large number) of long, thin rollers.
NITROGEN OXIDE (NOx): One of the three basic pollutants found in the exhaust emission of an internal combustion engine. The amount of NOx usually varies in an inverse proportion to the amount of HC and CO.

Glossary of automotive

ABS: Anti-lock braking system. An electro-mechanical braking system which is designed to minimize or prevent wheel lock-up during braking.
ACCELERATOR PUMP: A small pump located in the carburetor that feeds fuel into the air/fuel mixture during acceleration.
ADVANCE: Setting the ignition timing so that spark occurs earlier, before the piston reaches top dead center (TDC).
AFTER TOP DEAD CENTER (ATDC): The point after the piston reaches the top of its travel on the compression stroke.
AIR BAG: Device on the inside of the car designed to inflate on impact of crash, protecting the occupants of the car.
AIR CLEANER: An assembly consisting of a housing, filter and any connecting ductwork. The filter element is made up of a porous paper, sometimes with a wire mesh screening, and is designed to prevent airborne particles from entering the engine through the carburetor or throttle body.

Figure 1 Typical type of air cleaner assembly on most of today's cars

AIR INJECTION: One method of reducing harmful exhaust emissions by injecting air into each of the exhaust ports of an engine. The fresh air entering the hot exhaust manifold causes any remaining fuel to be burned before it can exit the tailpipe.
AIR PUMP: An emission control device that supplies fresh air to the exhaust manifold to aid in more completely burning exhaust gases.
AIR/FUEL RATIO: The ratio of air-to-gasoline by weight in the fuel mixture drawn into the engine.
ALIGNMENT RACK: A special drive-on car lift apparatus/measuring device used to adjust a car's toe, caster and camber angles.
ALL WHEEL DRIVE: Term used to describe a full time four wheel drive system or any other car drive system that continuously delivers power to all four wheels. This system is found primarily on station wagon cars and SUVs not utilized for significant off road use.
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC): Electric current that flows first in one direction, then in the opposite direction, continually reversing flow.
ALTERNATOR: A device which produces AC (alternating current) which is converted to DC (direct current) to charge the car battery.

Figure 2 Automotive alternator

AMMETER: An instrument, calibrated in amperes, used to measure the flow of an electrical current in a circuit. Ammeters are always connected in series with the circuit being tested.
AMP/HR. RATING (BATTERY): Measurement of the ability of a battery to deliver a stated amount of current for a stated period of time. The higher the amp/hr. rating, the better the battery.
AMPERE: The rate of flow of electrical current present when one volt of electrical pressure is applied against one ohm of electrical resistance.
ANALOG COMPUTER: Any microprocessor that uses similar (analogous) electrical signals to make its calculations.
ANTIFREEZE: A substance (ethylene or propylene glycol) added to the coolant to prevent freezing in cold weather.
ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM: A supplementary system to the base hydraulic system that prevents sustained lock-up of the wheels during braking as well as automatically controlling wheel slip.
ANTI-ROLL BAR: See stabilizer bar.

Figure 3. Location of a typical anti-roll bar on a McPherson strut suspension

ANTI-SWAY BAR LINKS: The link pins and bushings that connect the anti-sway bar to the lower control arms in the front or rear suspension.
ARMATURE: A laminated, soft iron core wrapped by a wire that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy as in a motor or relay. When rotated in a magnetic field, it changes mechanical energy into electrical energy as in a generator.
ASE: Acronym for the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence. ASE is usually affiliated with being a Certified Technician. ASE provides a testing system to recognize a technicians skills and abilities in specific mechanical areas, such as drivetrain, engine performance, electrical, etc.
ATDC: After top dead center.
ATF: Automatic transmission fluid.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: The pressure on the Earth's surface caused by the weight of the air in the atmosphere. At sea level, this pressure is 14.7 psi at 32°F (101 kPa at 0°C).
ATOMIZATION: The breaking down of a liquid into a fine mist that can be suspended in air.
AWD: All wheel drive.
AXIAL PLAY: Movement parallel to a shaft or bearing bore.
AXLE CAPACITY: The maximum load-carrying capacity of the axle itself, as specified by the manufacturer. This is usually a higher number than the GAWR.
AXLE RATIO: This is a number (3.07:1, 4.56:1, for example) expressing the ratio between driveshaft revolutions and wheel revolutions. A low numerical ratio allows the engine to work easier because it doesn't have to turn as fast. A high numerical ratio means that the engine has to turn more rpm's to move the wheels through the same number of turns.
BACKFIRE: The sudden combustion of gases in the intake or exhaust system that results in a loud explosion.
BACKLASH: The clearance or play between two parts, such as meshed gears.
BACKPRESSURE: Restrictions in the exhaust system that slow the exit of exhaust gases from the combustion chamber.
BAKELITE: A heat resistant, plastic insulator material commonly used in printed circuit boards and transistorized components.
BALL BEARING: A bearing made up of hardened inner and outer races between which hardened steel balls roll.
BALL JOINT: A ball and matching socket connecting suspension components (steering knuckle to lower control arms). It permits rotating movement in any direction between the components that are joined.

Figure 4 Front suspension ball joints

BALLAST RESISTOR: A resistor in the primary ignition circuit that lowers voltage after the engine is started to reduce wear on ignition components.
BATTERY: A direct current electrical storage unit, consisting of the basic active materials of lead and sulphuric acid, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Used to provide current for the operation of the starter as well as other equipment, such as the radio, lighting, etc.

Figure 5 A sealed type battery

BEAD: The portion of a tire that holds it on the rim.
BEARING: A friction reducing, supportive device usually located between a stationary part and a moving part.
BEFORE TOP DEAD CENTER (BTDC): The point just before the piston reaches the top of its travel on the compression stroke.
BELTED TIRE: Tire construction similar to bias-ply tires, but using two or more layers of reinforced belts between body plies and the tread.
BEZEL: Piece of metal surrounding radio, headlights, gauges or similar components; sometimes used to hold the glass face of a gauge in the dash.
BIAS-PLY TIRE: Tire construction, using body ply reinforcing cords which run at alternating angles to the center line of the tread.
BI-METAL TEMPERATURE SENSOR: Any sensor or switch made of two dissimilar types of metal that bend when heated or cooled due to the different expansion rates of the alloys. These types of sensors usually function as an on/off switch.
BLOCK: See Engine Block.
BLOW-BY: Combustion gases, composed of water vapor and unburned fuel, that leak past the piston rings into the crankcase during normal engine operation. These gases are removed by the PCV system to prevent the buildup of harmful acids in the crankcase.
BOOK TIME: See Labor Time.
BOOK VALUE: The average value of a car, widely used to determine trade-in and resale value.
BORE: Diameter of a cylinder.
BRAKE CALIPER: The housing that fits over the brake disc. The caliper holds the brake pads, which are pressed against the discs by the caliper pistons when the brake pedal is depressed.

Figure 6 Disc brake

BRAKE FADE: Loss of braking power, usually caused by excessive heat after repeated brake applications.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER: Usable horsepower of an engine measured at the crankshaft.
BRAKE PAD: A brake shoe and lining assembly used with disc brakes.
BRAKE PROPORTIONING VALVE: A valve on the master cylinder which restricts hydraulic brake pressure to the wheels to a specified amount, preventing wheel lock-up.
BRAKE SHOE: The backing for the brake lining. The term is, however, usually applied to the assembly of the brake backing and lining.
BREAKER POINTS: A set of points inside the distributor, operated by a cam, which make and break the ignition circuit.
BTDC: Before top dead center.
BUSHING: A liner, usually removable, for a bearing; an anti-friction liner used in place of a bearing.
CALIFORNIA ENGINE: An engine certified by the EPA for use in California only; conforms to more stringent emission regulations than Federal engine.
CALIPER: A hydraulically activated device in a disc brake system, which is mounted straddling the brake rotor (disc). The caliper contains at least one piston and two brake pads. Hydraulic pressure on the piston(s) forces the pads against the rotor.
CAMBER: One of the factors of wheel alignment. Viewed from the front of the car, it is the inward or outward tilt of the wheel. The top of the tire will lean outward (positive camber) or inward (negative camber).

Figure 7. Camber angle (front view)

CAMSHAFT: A shaft in the engine on which are the lobes (cams) which operate the valves. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft, via a belt, chain or gears, at one half the crankshaft speed.
CANCER: Rust on a car body.
CAPACITOR: A device which stores an electrical charge.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO): A colorless, odorless gas given off as a normal byproduct of combustion. It is poisonous and extremely dangerous in confined areas, building up slowly to toxic levels without warning if adequate ventilation is not available.
CARBURETOR: A device, usually mounted on the intake manifold of an engine, which mixes the air and fuel in the proper proportion to allow even combustion.
CASTER: The forward or rearward tilt of an imaginary line drawn through the upper ball joint and the center of the wheel. Viewed from the sides, positive caster (forward tilt) lends directional stability, while negative caster (rearward tilt) produces instability.

Figure 8. Caster angle (side view)

CATALYTIC CONVERTER: A device installed in the exhaust system, like a muffler, that converts harmful byproducts of combustion into carbon dioxide and water vapor by means of a heat-producing chemical reaction.
CENTRIFUGAL ADVANCE: A mechanical method of advancing the spark timing by using flyweights in the distributor that react to centrifugal force generated by the distributor shaft rotation.
CETANE RATING: A measure of the ignition value of diesel fuel. The higher the cetane rating, the better the fuel. Diesel fuel cetane rating is roughly comparable to gasoline octane rating.
CHECK ENGINE LIGHT: The malfunction indicator light that the vehicle's on board computer illuminates when it senses a fault in a monitored system.
CHECK VALVE: Any one-way valve installed to permit the flow of air, fuel or vacuum in one direction only.
CHOKE: The valve/plate that restricts the amount of air entering an engine on the induction stroke, thereby enriching the air:fuel ratio.
CIRCLIP: A split steel snap ring that fits into a groove to hold various parts in place.
CIRCUIT BREAKER: A switch which protects an electrical circuit from overload by opening the circuit when the current flow exceeds a pre-determined level. Some circuit breakers must be reset manually, while most reset automatically.
CIRCUIT: Any unbroken path through which an electrical current can flow. Also used to describe fuel flow in some instances.
CLEARCOAT: A transparent layer which, when sprayed over a car's paint service, adds gloss and depth as well as an additional protective coating to the finish.
CLUTCH: Part of the power train used to connect/disconnect power to the rear wheels.

Figure 9 Exploded view of typical clutch

COIL: Part of the ignition system that boosts the relatively low voltage supplied by the car's electrical system to the high voltage required to fire the spark plugs.
COMBINATION MANIFOLD: An assembly which includes both the intake and exhaust manifolds in one casting.
COMBINATION VALVE: A device used in some fuel systems that routes fuel vapors to a charcoal storage canister instead of venting them into the atmosphere. The valve relieves fuel tank pressure and allows fresh air into the tank as the fuel level drops to prevent a vapor lock situation.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER: The part of the engine in the cylinder head where combustion takes place.
COMPRESSION CHECK: A test involving removing each spark plug and inserting a gauge. When the engine is cranked, the gauge will record a pressure reading in the individual cylinder. General operating condition can be determined from a compression check.

Figure 10 Performing a compression check using a compression gauge

COMPRESSION RATIO: The ratio of the volume between the piston and cylinder head when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke (bottom dead center) and when the piston is at the top of its stroke (top dead center).
CONDENSER: 1. An electrical device which acts to store an electrical charge, preventing voltage surges. 2. A radiator-like device in the air conditioning system in which refrigerant gas condenses into a liquid, giving off heat.
CONDUCTOR: Any material through which an electrical current can be transmitted easily.
CONNECTING ROD: The connecting link between the crankshaft and piston.
CONSTANT VELOCITY JOINT: Type of universal joint in a halfshaft assembly in which the output shaft turns at a constant angular velocity without variation, provided that the speed of the input shaft is constant.
CONTINUITY: Continuous or complete circuit. Can be checked with an ohmmeter.
CONTROL ARM: The upper or lower suspension components which are mounted on the frame and support the ball joints and steering knuckles.
CONVENTIONAL IGNITION: Ignition system which uses breaker points.
COOLANT: Mixture of water and anti-freeze circulated through the engine to carry off heat produced by the engine.
COUNTERSHAFT: An intermediate shaft which is rotated by a mainshaft and transmits, in turn, that rotation to a working part.
CRANKCASE: The lower part of an engine in which the crankshaft and related parts operate.
CRANKSHAFT: Engine component (connected to pistons by connecting rods) which converts the reciprocating (up and down) motion of pistons to rotary motion used to turn the driveshaft.
CURB WEIGHT: The weight of a car without passengers or payload, but including all fluids (oil, gas, coolant, etc.) and other equipment specified as standard.
CV-JOINT: Constant velocity joint.
CYLINDER BLOCK: See engine block.

Figure 11. Basic cylinder block (engine block) casting

CYLINDER HEAD: The detachable portion of the engine, usually fastened to the top of the cylinder block and containing all or most of the combustion chambers. On overhead valve engines, it contains the valves and their operating parts. On overhead cam engines, it contains the camshaft as well.

IGNITION SYSTEM

Introduction 
There are many different types of ignition systems. Most of these systems can be placed into one of three distinct groups: the conventional breaker point type ignition systems (in use since the early 1900s); the electronic ignition systems (popular since the mid 70s); and the distributorless ignition system (introduced in the mid 80s).
The automotive ignition system has two basic functions: it must control the spark and timing of the spark plug firing to match varying engine requirements, and it must increase battery voltage to a point where it will overcome the resistance offered by the spark plug gap and fire the plug.
The first step in understanding a vehicle's ignition system is to learn about basic electricity. For more information on electrical circuits, how they work and how to troubleshoot them, please refer to the information on "Understanding and Troubleshooting Electrical Systems" elsewhere in this manual.
How the ignition system works
Point-type ignition system
See Figures 1, 2 and 3
An automotive ignition system is divided into two electrical circuits -- the primary and secondary circuits. The primary circuit carries low voltage. This circuit operates only on battery current and is controlled by the breaker points and the ignition switch. The secondary circuit consists of the secondary windings in the coil, the high tension lead between the distributor and the coil (commonly called the coil wire) on external coil distributors, the distributor cap, the distributor rotor, the spark plug leads and the spark plugs.
The distributor is the controlling element of the system. It switches the primary current on and off and distributes the current to the proper spark plug each time a spark is needed. The distributor is a stationary housing surrounding a rotating shaft. The shaft is driven at one-half engine speed by the engine's camshaft through the distributor drive gears. A cam near the top of the distributor shaft has one lobe for each cylinder of the engine. The cam operates the contact points, which are mounted on a plate within the distributor housing.
A rotor is attached to the top of the distributor shaft. When the distributor cap is in place, a spring-loaded piece of metal in the center of the cap makes contact with a metal strip on top of the rotor. The outer end of the rotor passes very close to the contacts connected to the spark plug leads around the outside of the distributor cap.
The coil is the heart of the ignition system. Essentially, it is nothing more than a transformer which takes the relatively low voltage (12 volts) available from the battery and increases it to a point where it will fire the spark plug as much as 40,000 volts. The term "coil" is perhaps a misnomer since there are actually two coils of wire wound about an iron core. These coils are insulated from each other and the whole assembly is enclosed in an oil-filled case. The primary coil, which consists of relatively few turns of heavy wire, is connected to the two primary terminals located on top of the coil. The secondary coil consists of many turns of fine wire. It is connected to the high-tension connection on top of the coil (the tower into which the coil wire from the distributor is plugged).
Under normal operating conditions, power from the battery is fed through a resistor or resistance wire to the primary circuit of the coil and is then grounded through the ignition points in the distributor (the points are closed). Energizing the coil primary circuit with battery voltage produces current flow through the primary windings, which induces a very large, intense magnetic field. This magnetic field remains as long as current flows and the points remain closed.
As the distributor cam rotates, the points are pushed apart, breaking the primary circuit and stopping the flow of current. Interrupting the flow of primary current causes the magnetic field to collapse. Just as current flowing through a wire produces a magnetic field, moving a magnetic field across a wire will produce a current. As the magnetic field collapses, its lines of force cross the secondary windings, inducing a current in them. Since there are many more turns of wire in the secondary windings, the voltage from the primary windings is magnified considerably up to 40,000 volts.
The voltage from the coil secondary windings flows through the coil high-tension lead to the center of the distributor cap, where it is distributed by the rotor to one of the outer terminals in the cap. From there, it flows through the spark plug lead to the spark plug. This process occurs in a split second and is repeated every time the points open and close, which is up to 1500 times a minute in a 4-cylinder engine at idle.
To prevent the high voltage from burning the points, a condenser is installed in the circuit. It absorbs some of the force of the surge of electrical current that occurs during the collapse of the magnetic field. The condenser consists of several layers of aluminum foil separated by insulation. These layers of foil are capable of storing electricity, making the condenser an electrical surge tank.
Voltages just after the points open may reach 250 volts because of the amount of energy stored in the primary windings and the subsequent magnetic field. A condenser which is defective or improperly grounded will not absorb the shock from the fast-moving stream of electricity when the points open and the current can force its way across the point gap, causing pitting and burning.

Figure 1  A schematic of a typical conventional breaker-point ignition system.

Figure 2  A conventional breaker-point distributor.

Figure 3  Cutaway view of a conventional coil. The primary windings connect to the small terminals on the top of the coil, while the secondary winding connects to the central tower.

Electronic ignition systems
See Figure 4
The need for higher mileage, reduced emissions and greater reliability has led to the development of the electronic ignition systems. These systems generate a much stronger spark which is needed to ignite leaner fuel mixtures. Breaker point systems needed a resistor to reduce the operating voltage of the primary circuit in order to prolong the life of the points. The primary circuit of the electronic ignition systems operate on full battery voltage which helps to develop a stronger spark. Spark plug gaps have widened due to the ability of the increased voltage to jump the larger gap. Cleaner combustion and less deposits have led to longer spark plug life.
On some systems, the ignition coil has been moved inside the distributor cap. This system is said to have an internal coil as opposed to the conventional external one.
Electronic Ignition systems are not as complicated as they may first appear. In fact, they differ only slightly from conventional point ignition systems. Like conventional ignition systems, electronic systems have two circuits: a primary circuit and a secondary circuit. The entire secondary circuit is the same as in a conventional ignition system. In addition, the section of the primary circuit from the battery to the battery terminal at the coil is the same as in a conventional ignition system.
Electronic ignition systems differ from conventional ignition systems in the distributor component area. Instead of a distributor cam, breaker plate, points, and condenser, an electronic ignition system has an armature (called by various names such as a trigger wheel, reluctor, etc.), a pickup coil (stator, sensor, etc.), and an electronic control module.
Essentially, all electronic ignition systems operate in the following manner: With the ignition switch turned on, primary (battery) current flows from the battery through the ignition switch to the coil primary windings. Primary current is turned on and off by the action of the armature as it revolves past the pickup coil or sensor. As each tooth of the armature nears the pickup coil, it creates a voltage that signals the electronic module to turn off the coil primary current. A timing circuit in the module will turn the current on again after the coil field has collapsed. When the current is off, however, the magnetic field built up in the coil is allowed to collapse, which causes a high voltage in the secondary windings of the coil. It is now operating on the secondary ignition circuit, which is the same as in a conventional ignition system.
Troubleshooting electronic ignition systems ordinarily requires the use of a voltmeter and/or an ohmmeter. Sometimes the use of an ammeter is also required. Because of differences in design and construction, troubleshooting is specific to each system. A complete troubleshooting guide for you particular application can be found in the Chilton's Total Car Care manual.

Figure 4  Typical electronic ignition system. Note its basic similarity to a conventional system.

Distributorless ignition systems
See Figures 5 and 6
The third type of ignition system is the distributorless ignition. The spark plugs are fired directly from the coils. The spark timing is controlled by an Ignition Control Unit (ICU) and the Engine Control Unit (ECU). The distributorless ignition system may have one coil per cylinder, or one coil for each pair of cylinders.
Some popular systems use one ignition coil per two cylinders. This type of system is often known as the waste spark distribution method. In this system, each cylinder is paired with the cylinder opposite it in the firing order (usually 1-4, 2-3 on 4-cylinder engines or 1-4, 2-5, 3-6 on V6 engines). The ends of each coil secondary leads are attached to spark plugs for the paired opposites. These two plugs are on companion cylinders, cylinders that are at Top Dead Center (TDC) at the same time. But, they are paired opposites, because they are always at opposing ends of the 4 stroke engine cycle. When one is at TDC of the compression stroke, the other is at TDC of the exhaust stroke. The one that is on compression is said to be the event cylinder and one on the exhaust stroke, the waste cylinder. When the coil discharges, both plugs fire at the same time to complete the series circuit.
Since the polarity of the primary and the secondary windings are fixed, one plug always fires in a forward direction and the other in reverse. This is different than a conventional system firing all plugs the same direction each time. Because of the demand for additional energy; the coil design, saturation time and primary current flow are also different. This redesign of the system allows higher energy to be available from the distributorless coils, greater than 40 kilovolts at all rpm ranges.
The Direct Ignition System (DIS) uses either a magnetic crankshaft sensor, camshaft position sensor, or both, to determine crankshaft position and engine speed. This signal is sent to the ignition control module or engine control module which then energizes the appropriate coil.
The advantages of no distributor, in theory, is:

• No timing adjustments
• No distributor cap and rotor
• No moving parts to wear out
• No distributor to accumulate moisture and cause starting problems
• No distributor to drive thus providing less engine drag

The major components of a distributorless ignition are:

• ECU or Engine Control Unit
• ICU or Ignition Control Unit
• Magnetic Triggering Device such as the Crankshaft Position Sensor and the Camshaft Position Sensor
• Coil Packs

Figure 5  Typical distributorless ignition schematic.

Figure 6  Components of a typical distributorless ignition system.

Ignition timing See Figures 7 and 8
Ignition timing is the measurement, in degrees of crankshaft rotation, of the point at which the spark plugs fire in each of the cylinders. It is measured in degrees before or after Top Dead Center (TDC) of the compression stroke.
Because it takes a fraction of a second for the spark plug to ignite the mixture in the cylinder, the spark plug must fire a little before the piston reaches TDC. Otherwise, the mixture will not be completely ignited as the piston passes TDC and the full power of the explosion will not be used by the engine.
Ignition timing on many of today's vehicles is controlled by the engine control computer and is not adjustable. However the timing can be read using a scan tool connected to the data link connector.
The timing measurement is given in degrees of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches TDC (BTDC). If the setting for the ignition timing is 5° BTDC, the spark plug must fire 5° before each piston reaches TDC. This only holds true, however, when the engine is at idle speed.
As the engine speed increases, the pistons go faster. The spark plugs have to ignite the fuel even sooner if it is to be completely ignited when the piston reaches TDC. To do this, distributors have various means of advancing the spark timing as the engine speed increases. On older vehicles, this was accomplished by centrifugal weights within the distributor along with a vacuum diaphragm mounted on the side of the distributor. Later vehicles are equipped with an electronic spark timing system in which no vacuum or mechanical advance is used, instead all timing changes electronically based on signals from various sensors.
If the ignition is set too far advanced (BTDC), the ignition and expansion of the fuel in the cylinder will occur too soon and tend to force the piston down while it is still traveling up. This causes engine ping. If the ignition spark is set too far retarded, after TDC (ATDC), the piston will have already passed TDC and started on its way down when the fuel is ignited. This will cause the piston to be forced down for only a portion of its travel. This will result in poor engine performance and lack of power.

Figure 7  Normal combustion in the cylinder.

Figure 8  Preignition is just what the name implies -- ignition of the fuel charge prior to the time of the spark. Any hot spot within the combustion chamber, such as glowing carbon deposits, rough metallic edges or overheated spark plugs, can cause preignition.

Ignition system maintenance
Electronic ignitions, of course, do not need distributor maintenance as often as conventional point-type systems; however, nothing lasts forever. The distributor cap, rotor and ignition wires should be replaced at the manufacturer's suggested interval. Also, because of the higher voltages delivered, spark plugs should last anywhere from 30,000-60,000 miles (48000-96500 Km).